Internationalization , the Curriculum , and the Disciplines

principle has been widely used in human rights, labor, and gender discourses. It provides for the unequal treatment of fundamentally different cases and may be used in the higher education context to avoid the inequitable tendencies alluded to above. A substantive understanding of equality in partnerships could provide a suitable theoretical framework to achieve the equitable sharing of the benefits of joint endeavors and consequently lead to real equality in partnerships. Such an understanding would reflect the differences between the entities involved in the relationship and provide a framework which acknowledges that diversity can serve as the foundation for equitable governance structures for partnerships. It considers that the nature and quantity of contributions to partnerships should depend on the individual partner’s respective strength, but that the relationship should remain reciprocal. To create certainty and promote equity, it would be desirable to adopt a conception of equality that clearly defines the extent of contributions required by partners. A useful example for the application of the principle of substantive equality is the 2013 internationalization policy of the University of Venda in South Africa, which adopts a substantive understanding of equality and defines it to mean that “every partner to a relationship should make contributions which are equally meaningful taking the context of the partner into consideration.”

principle has been widely used in human rights, labor, and gender discourses.It provides for the unequal treatment of fundamentally different cases and may be used in the higher education context to avoid the inequitable tendencies alluded to above.
A substantive understanding of equality in partnerships could provide a suitable theoretical framework to achieve the equitable sharing of the benefits of joint endeavors and consequently lead to real equality in partnerships.Such an understanding would reflect the differences between the entities involved in the relationship and provide a framework which acknowledges that diversity can serve as the foundation for equitable governance structures for partnerships.It considers that the nature and quantity of contributions to partnerships should depend on the individual partner's respective strength, but that the relationship should remain reciprocal.
To create certainty and promote equity, it would be desirable to adopt a conception of equality that clearly defines the extent of contributions required by partners.A useful example for the application of the principle of substantive equality is the 2013 internationalization policy of the University of Venda in South Africa, which adopts a substantive understanding of equality and defines it to mean that "every partner to a relationship should make contributions which are equally meaningful taking the context of the partner into consideration."

Conclusion
To counter inequalities and even exploitative undercurrents, which characterize many contemporary higher education partnerships, it is necessary to develop a theoretically sound conception of equality in alliances between universities of divergent strength, which goes beyond formal equality and rather looks at substantive equality.Further research will be required to gain a deep understanding of the present paradigm, which could serve to appropriately conceptualize a model that can advance genuine equality in higher education partnerships.It appears, prima facie, that the adoption of a substantive understanding of equality may facilitate the development of an equitable paradigm, which would ensure that genuine equality can be achieved in mutually beneficial and reciprocal higher education partnerships.I n the last decade, institutions of higher education, nation- al governments, and (inter)national organizations have become more proactive, comprehensive, diverse, and innovative in their approaches to internationalization. Critical reflection on their outcomes-in particular their impact on student learning-has resulted in a search for approaches to internationalization that have deeper meaning and greater impact.
The search for new approaches is evident in the increasing use of terms such as "deep internationalization," "transformative internationalization," and "comprehensive internationalization." While such terms are increasing in number and frequently used, the challenge is to align rhetoric with practice.These terms are consistent with using internationalization as a driver of quality and innovation and reflect growing interest in ensuring the majority of students and staff are engaged in and changed by the internationalization agenda.They also have the potential to stimulate the development of approaches that address existing inequalities in educational opportunity and outcomes in the world today.Haphazard approaches to internationalization that focused on a minority of students or on profit rather than education are not consistent with such terms and insufficient in universities operating in a globalized world.In this super-complex world, multiple dimensions of being are required of both individuals and institutions.In this world, coherent and connected approaches to international education, which address epistemological, praxis, and ontological elements of all students' development, are urgently needed.Focusing attention on these goals has the capacity to transform an institution's approach to internationalization and the identity of the institution.
The curriculum is the vehicle by which the development of epistemological, praxis, and ontological elements can be incorporated into the life and learning of today's students, ensuring that they graduate ready and willing to make a positive difference in the world of tomorrow.Recently, questions related to the relationship between the in-Number 83: Special Issue 2015 ternationalization of higher education, the curriculum, and the disciplines have been raised.Some of these questions are discussed briefly below.

Is Global Citizenship a Possible and Desirable Outcome?
The development of responsible global citizens may be one way in which universities can have an impact on local communities and global society.But how do we define "global citizenship" as an outcome of internationalization? What knowledge, skills, and values will the global citizen display?How would we develop and measure these in the context of the curriculum of a program of study?Is global citizenship indeed possible in a world in which the nation-state dominates politically and the gap between the rich and poor of the world is widening?Some argue that the pursuit of global citizenship as an outcome of international education is not even desirable, that it will inevitably exclude some.This could lead to the creation of a stronger transnational elite, further increasing the privilege and power of some groups compared with others.
These are important issues that are often overlooked in the pursuit of global citizenship as an outcome of internationalization of the curriculum.

What is the Role of Mobility?
Mobility is still the main focus of many institutional approaches to internationalization.This is in part because mobility is easy to translate into numbers, percentages, and targets.Measurable targets are required for the rankings of universities nationally, regionally, and globally.However, even if the ambitious goals set by the Ministers of Education of the Bologna signatory countries are met, around 80 percent of students will not be able or willing to study abroad.This highlights the importance of the "at home" component of internationalization, which not only looks at the outcomes, impact, and quality of internationalization, but is focused on internationalized learning outcomes for all students instead of the mobility of the minority.This raises the question: "How can we shift, in many institutions, from an almost exclusive focus on mobility for the elite to a focus on curriculum and learning outcomes for all students, mobile or not?" Institutional mission, ethos, policies, and priorities influence approaches taken to internationalization.The local context-the social, cultural, political, and economic conditions-provides opportunities and challenges for internationalization of the curriculum.National accreditation requirements for registration in professions often focus on local legislation and policy.Different national and regional contexts provide different options for internationalization of the curriculum.The global context is also important.Globalization has contributed to increasing the gap between the rich and the poor of the world, and the exploitation of the "South" by the "North."The domination is not only economic, it is also intellectual: the dominance of Western educational models, what research questions are asked, who will investigate them, and if and how the results will be applied.Discipline communities are a strong driver of approaches to content selection, teaching, learning, and curriculum design in the national and global contexts.Critical decisions about whose knowledge will be included in the curriculum and how to teach and assess learning, are determined by the discipline community.Disciplinary, institutional, local, national, regional, and global factors interact in different ways to facilitate and inhibit, drive, and shape approaches to internationalization, including the way in which learning outcomes are defined, taught, and assessed.Hence, we see approaches to internationalization of the curriculum that are both similar and different within and across disciplines.

How Do We Define Internationalization of the Curriculum?
Can we come to some international, if not global, agreement on at least the general characteristics of the concept and the process of internationalizing the curriculum?This definition needs to be broad enough to allow context sensitive, discipline-specific interpretations, that are detailed enough to ensure key components of the curriculum are addressed and all students are influenced and included.The definition by Betty Leask (2015) addresses these points: "Internationalization of the curriculum is the process of incorporating international, intercultural and global dimensions into the content of the curriculum as well as the learning outcomes, assessment tasks, teaching methods and support services of a program of study."Coherent and connected approaches to international education, which address epistemological, praxis, and ontological elements of all students' development, are urgently needed.

A Shifting Focus
These unresolved questions highlight a shifting focus in approaches to internationalization-away from ad hoc, marginal, and fragmented activities toward broader, more diverse, and more integrated and transformative processes.Although there is still a strong focus on the abroad side of internationalization, there is an ever stronger call for attention to the internationalization of the curriculum at home.There is increasing recognition of the need for institutions to pay more attention to involve more, and even all, students in internationalization.The focus is, however, shifting slowly and more is imagined than achieved.
Internationalization is not a goal in itself but it is a means to enhance the quality of the education, research, and service functions of higher education.The context influences the why, what, and the how of internationalization; therefore, the way in which internationalization of the curriculum is interpreted and enacted, is both similar and different across disciplines and fields of study.There is no one model of internationalization fit for all higher education systems, institutions, and disciplines.
Europe Calling: A New Definition for Internationalization at Home

Jos Beelen and Elspeth Jones
Jos Beelen is Chair of Expert Community Internationalisation at Home, the European Association for International Education, The Netherlands.E-mail: j.beelen@hva.nl.Elspeth Jones is Emerita Professor of the Internationalisation of Higher Education at Leeds Beckett University, UK, and Honorary Visiting Fellow at the Centre for Higher Education Internationalisation at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy.E-mail: ej@elspethjones.com.
I n recent discussions on the internationalization of higher education, the constant introduction of new terms and definitions has rightly been criticized.Although the authors are fully aware of this, they consider that the importance of clarifying the concept of internationalization at home overrides the urge to limit the number of definitions.They have recently proposed a new definition of internationalization at home.Although defining it does not guarantee its implementation, since there are fundamental challenges to be overcome, it is hoped that this redefinition might bring implementation a step closer.

Continued and Growing Attention to Internationalization at Home
The concept of internationalization at home plays a useful role in certain contexts, particularly where the emphasis of internationalization efforts has traditionally been on mobility.It is increasingly clear that mobility can bring substantial benefits to participants, and countries around the world are seeking to increase the number of students taking part.However, it is also recognized that mobile students will continue to make up a relatively small proportion of the student body, and internationalization at home is a convenient term to designate internationalization activity aimed at the whole student body.Now that internationalization at home has, since 2013, been included in the European Commission's education policy-European higher education in the world-it might even be said that it has gained momentum and has moved to the center of the debate on the internationalization of higher education.
Internationalization at home is now also on its way to becoming an item in the educational policies of European Union member states; e.g., the two Nuffic studies published in 2014 in the Netherlands were intended to form the basis for a Dutch national policy for internationalization at home.
It seems that, for once, policy is following practice.In the Netherlands, 76 percent of universities have already included internationalization of home curricula in their policies.For Europe, the percentage is somewhat lower at 56 percent, as we learn from the recently published EAIE Barometer.It is not simply about policy-making, however.Most European universities claim to be undertaking activities to implement internationalization at home.According to Trends 2015, the recently published survey of the European University Association, 64 percent of European higher education institutions are doing so.

Conceptual Fog
With the attention on internationalization at home increasing, it is all the more important that the concept is understood clearly, and shared understanding is not simply as-"Internationalization at Home is the purposeful integration of international and intercultural dimensions into the formal and informal curriculum for all students, within domestic learning environments."